Virtual Disks / Block Storage

VM storage is provided by a Ceph cluster as virtual disks / block devices. The data in the cluster is transparently encrypted before being stored onto physical disks, see Data media control for details.

Each virtual disk is visible in VMs as /dev/vda and reflects an underlying Ceph RBD volume.

Disk Layout

VMs are fitted with 3 different virtual disks:

/dev/vda

This disk contains an XFS partition and is mounted to the VFS root(/) and has the nominal size as requested in the VM configuration. The minimum size is 30 GiB and it contains the operating system as well as your application and user data.

Depending on the installed software you may need to reserve between 5-15 GiB of this disk for the operating system. Our use of NixOS has a higher footprint here than other OSes as we support atomic updates and may need to keep up to 4 copies of the OS environment in this store at some points in time.

/dev/vdb

This disk contains swap. It is sized depending on your machine’s memory and is at least 1 GiB or 32 times the square root of your VMs memory.

Swap is only provided to allow the VM some wiggle room if it runs out of memory in critical situations and allows for some room to interact and diagnose VMs that are running low on memory. Our VM configuration prefers to not use swap as much as possible as it impacts performance quite badly.

VM memory	Swap size
1 GiB	1 GiB
2 GiB	1.4 GiB
4 GiB	2 GiB
8 GiB	2.8 GiB
16 GiB	4 GiB
32 GiB	5.7 GiB
64 GiB	8 GiB

/dev/vdc

contains an XFS partition used as a bounded /tmp filesystem. Some applications (like MySQl) exercise their use of /tmp based on available space of this partition and - if mounted to / - can cause the disk to fill up and cause issues for other applications.

If your application needs a larger or more specific amount of temporary space, create a separate directory in your deployment and point your application to it by setting the TMPDIR environment variable (or use application specific configuration to adjust this).

This disk is sized depending on your root disk: it is at least 5 GiB or the square root of your root disk.

VM root disk	/tmp size
10 GiB	5 GiB
50 GiB	7 GiB
100 GiB	10 GiB
250 GiB	15 GiB
500 GiB	22 GiB

Migrating disks between storage pools

We provide multiple storage pools with different performance characteristics: named HDD and SSD as an indicator of the expected performance.

VM disks can be migrated between those pools by selecting a new pool. The VM will detect the change and schedule a maintenance to perform the migration at a convenient time.

Initialising the migration itself is a short offline operation, but takes only a few seconds until the VM is then started again. The actual data migration happens transparently in the background.

To speed up the process you can take the VM offline and online again to initiate the migration immediately.

Growing and shrinking disks

Virtual disks can be grown on the fly without shutting down the VM but shrinking is not supported.

When growing a virtual disk, we enlarge the underlying RBD volume, adapt the partition table and resize the main filesystem. This procedure is fully transpart and can be performed without downtime.

Shrinking a virtual disk is not supported. To shrink a disk you need to provision a new VM and copy the data to a smaller disk.

S3-compatible Object Storage

Our Ceph cluster also provides an S3-compatible object storage. Contact our support to get you started with credentials.

Application Implementation Guidance

Object storages are flexible and scalable without having to worry too much how they store the data. However, long term experience shows that a few rules should be respected when implementing object storage in your application to avoid problems later on and increase compatibility with third party applications.

Store the object locations in your application’s database

The best investment you can make when starting (or evolving) your usage of S3 storage in your application is to store the specific bucket and object key in your application’s database together with the main object record. If you have a table like “documents” then store your IDs like this:

ID      | object  | ... application data ... | s3uri
--------+---------+--------------------------|-----------------------------------------
5       | preview | ...                      | s3://myapp-2022-76fb4d2/preview/5.jpg
298376  | preview | ...                      | s3://myapp-2023-45df511/preview/298376.jpg

This allows you to later decide for a different organization scheme and change your application’s code that generates those bucket names and object keys without having to immediately update your database or keep multiple generations of key generation code alive.

You can then write a (slow) migration script that checks all objects whether their bucket and id is still the one that your application would generate now and if it is not you can copy the object, update the database and delete the old object, to perform a no-downtime migration.

Organize your objects using prefixes (use /pictures/1234.jpg instead of picture1234.jpg)

Theoretically you can grow bucket sizes almost infinitely and just throw objects into it without any structure. However, S3 supports something resembling a file hierarchy within a bucket by putting forward slashes (“/”) into the key names. This helps utilities that need to list keys because the API allows to efficiently retrieve those listings by providing a search prefix. The “/” is a common delimiter that many tools (like rclone) can automatically recognize and use.

See details about using prefixes in S3 in the original documentation (https://docs.aws.amazon.com/AmazonS3/latest/userguide/using-prefixes.html). Be aware that key lengths must be shorter than 1024 bytes!

Within a bucket your could use a “per client” and/or “per type” hierarchy, e.g. “//” that would result in “acme/pictures/1234.jpg”.

An alternative sharding criterion if your data does not have a native hierarchy is to extract a prefix from within the name. If your data has some randomness early in the filename then you could create an additional sharding layer. Consider this list of files:

11-8999103.pdf
11-8999103.thumbnail.png
11-8999424.pdf
11-8999424.thumbnail.png
11-8999777.pdf
11-8999777.thumbnail.png
11-9000018.pdf
11-9000018.thumbnail.png
11-9000025.pdf
11-9000025.thumbnail.png
11-9000370.pdf
11-9000370.thumbnail.png
11-9000371.pdf

Which could be organized with the first 5 characters as a sharding layer:

.
├── 11-89
│   ├── 11-8999103.pdf
│   ├── 11-8999103.thumbnail.png
│   ├── 11-8999424.pdf
│   ├── 11-8999424.thumbnail.png
│   ├── 11-8999777.pdf
│   └── 11-8999777.thumbnail.png
└── 11-90
    ├──  11-9000018.pdf
    ├──  11-9000018.thumbnail.png
    ├──  11-9000025.pdf
    ├──  11-9000025.thumbnail.png
    ├──  11-9000370.pdf
    ├──  11-9000370.thumbnail.png
    └──  11-9000371.pdf

If your data does not have sufficient randomness in this way you can generate a sharding layer by hashing your filenames and using the first few characters:

>>> import hashlib
>>> print(hashlib.sha256("11-9999991.thumbnail.png").hexdigest()[:2])
'72'
>>> print(hashlib.sha256("11-9999991.pdf").hexdigest()[:2])
'89'

This would result in the following sharding structure that distributes quite evenly on the first layer:

.
├── 40
│   └──11-9000370.pdf
├── 54
│   └──11-8999777.thumbnail.png
├── 59
│   └──11-9000025.pdf
├── 80
│   └──11-8999424.thumbnail.png
├── 84
│   └──11-9000018.thumbnail.png
├── 89
│   └──11-9000370.thumbnail.png
├── 99
│   └──11-9000018.pdf
├── 9b
│   ├──11-8999424.pdf
│   └──11-8999777.pdf
├── a3
│   └──11-9000025.thumbnail.png
├── c8
│   └──11-8999103.pdf
├── de
│   └──11-8999103.thumbnail.png
└── df
    └──11-9000371.pdf

Be aware of the global bucket namespace (suffix your buckets with short uuids – “app-2022-d7b54fd”)

S3 considers the bucket namespace to be global “within a partition”. This means that you must not rely in specific bucket names to be available to your application. See Amazon’s “Buckets overview” for more information.

Our recommendation is to use a combination of your applications name, the sharding criteria and a short random uuid (7 hexdigits) and be prepared to regenerate the random uuid if it already exists but was created by another account. Examples of good bucket names:

myapp-2022-76ba5dd
myapp-cust1-54fdb32

Due to the inclusion of a random uuid you will also need to store the specific bucket names that you have created in your application’s database for certain purposes, like (“this year’s bucket for customer X is named “myapp-X-2022-54fdb32”).

Limit total bucket size (organize buckets with “app-2022” or “app-customer1”)

Another layer to make things more manageable is to create new buckets to restrict a single bucket’s total size (number of objects and data size). In general you should not have a lot of buckets. It’s fine to have large buckets as long as you organize them as shown above. However, two reasons exist to split your data into multiple buckets: failure domain and customer data separation requirements.

Buckets are a failure domain in the sense that they maintain an internal index. If this index becomes corrupt (which happens very rarely but has happened due to bugs in the past) you need to rebuild the bucket based on your applications data and copy the data to a new bucket. This can become extremely expensive and slow (think: days or weeks) and may block other operations that rely on the index (like backups) while rebuilding.

Also, if your customer requires a high level of data separation then it might be reasonable to create a bucket per customer.

In general our recommendation is: if you don’t have a per-customer separation requirement, then default to splitting your buckets on a time basis, if you don’t know better, then create a new bucket every year.

Amazon hints that their default limit for number of buckets per customer is 100, so creating a bucket structure that ends up with only few objects per buckets is not generally recommended. Using multiple criteria to separate buckets will almost always end up with too many buckets, so most applications will be fine by sharding the buckets yearly and end up with something like this:

myapp-2021-65fdb33
myapp-2022-5ff14d5
myapp-2023-46663de